Defining Action in Ibsen and Sibelius

By Brian Fitzpatrick

Realism, Symbolism, Nationalism, and Romanticism are broad classifications of artistic styles. They are also familiar terms in describing the work of Ibsen and Sibelius. Realism stands as an exception, since music does not share the particularity offered by speech or writing. Even though the specific meaning of language has been questioned since Nietzsche, words used in a given context provide a reference to the "real" world that is concrete enough for certain dramas to be classified under the term realism. Music also establishes a context, and uses a particular language to define it. But the sonorous nature of its language does not so readily allow for developing a specific equivalency with a characteristic of the real world. Music is too often content with its evocative sonorous power that needn't make reference to physical or tangible subject matter.

With that aspect of music identified, there still remains a similarity between Henrik Ibsen's realism and the music of Jean Sibelius, particularly as evidenced in the latter's Symphony No. 4. To understand the affinity between these two men I will refer to Ibsen's The Master Builder (1892) and Sibelius's Symphony No. 4 (1911). The technical, stylistic similarity to be discussed here is the introduction and development of only essential material as a means of creating action.

Most dramas and music develop a contextual relationship in which primary themes are defined against other ideas. An attribute of Ibsen and Sibelius is that thematic development itself remains true to the central theme. The question of what is essential in these works is answered by what is there. Although it might be correctly argued that what is given in any artwork is essential, in these the given themes focus around a limited number of primary ideas, they are nuclear rather than mechanical, self-propelled rather than effected by outside causes. It is because of their intense concentration that each is so penetrating.

Ibsen's action focuses intensely on developing the point of view of the main character Solness, and the ramifications that revolve around him. It may be likened to understanding simultaneously the overt action in Sophocles and the unseen workings of the greater forces, the Gods. The Master Builder incorporates the idea of a "greater force" as part of the reality specific to Solness. Although the play couches the action in symbolism, action ensues from the realism at work. This "realism" is ontological in nature. It stems from the beliefs and drives of the characters. It is those beliefs and drives that are supported with symbolism.

A look into the developmental treatment of themes elucidates a belief about how actions in life transpire. Themes are designed, focused, and developed so that the play's coherence results from the concentration of a few innately related conditions. When we understand the drama as a whole, we see that thematic relationships occur through developing the relatively dominant belief system of one character, the master builder. The beliefs held by Solness propel the continuously unfolding action.

Works by other playwrights certainly probe the psyche, and reveal insights that stem from a given condition, but a focused, concentrated, succinct style of treatment belongs to Ibsen and Sibelius. As will be shown, the composer's style lends itself to this kind of organic generation.¹ The stylistic treatment of themes is as similar as possible between these different media. The concern here is not to categorize Sibelius or Ibsen as a realist, but to show that their stylistic treatment of action is similar.

Every action, whether in life, in a play, or in music, takes place within a context. Here the context is created by the playwright and by the composer. The context serves as a parameter, in relation to which the action is understood to cohere, move away, or advance. The action's degree of credibility is further illuminated by the specific qualifiers that define the action itself. How can music bring witness to this kind of action?

Of the seven Sibelius symphonies, the fourth holds an important place. It is often considered the primary example of Sibelius's musical personality and demonstrative of his compositional procedure. In Sibelius's Symphony No. 4, the brooding first theme is established in a minor key, with a specific rhythm, and characterized by a tritone, C to F-sharp. The development and statement of the second theme as actionis experienced in relationship to the established context (mood) of

1. First theme of Sibelius's Symphony No. 4.

strings

2. Second theme which demonstrates rhythmic diminution of the first theme.

the first. However, the second theme is derived from the first, and remains integrally related to it by the use of characteristic intervals and rhythms. An extreme juxtaposition would result if the first theme were contrasted with a very jubilant, rhythmic second theme. The initial context would have then shifted into a different realm. But this is not the case in Sibelius or Ibsen. The primary theme serves as the source for later material. The development and transformation of the primary theme becomes the action. In the above example, we witness the interrelatedness of themes that operates to provide action in Sibelius. Is there a correlative procedure at work in The Master Builder?

In the mid-nineteenth century, social commentary in theatre and painting raised issues of politics, social castes, poor working conditions, and other concerns, all of which were eventually subsumed in the term "realism." Four of Ibsen's playsThe Master Builder (1892), Little Eyolf (1894), John Gabriel Borkman (1896), and When We Dead Awaken (1899) are typically grouped together as his late work. One element that distinguishes The Master Builder from his earlier plays is Ibsen's turn away from social commentary toward an examination of the individual. This shift in emphasis in The Master Builder now makes the application of the term realism to a portrayal of the life of society inappropriate. As will be shown below, I redefine the term in relation to The Master Builder, to accommodate Ibsen's change of subject matter.

In The Master Builder, Hilda, a secondary but important character, makes an outrageous demand of Solness: to build "castles in the air." It is a demand thatalthough symbolicbecomes significant by what Ibsen reveals about Solness's beliefs, as well as Hilda's. Hilda is primarily a symbolic character,² directly connected to Solness by motifs such as the threatening younger generation, the Solnesses' lost children, and youth and vitality in general. She wants her kingdom, one equated with the power and control Solness believes he must maintain. The symbolic "castles in the air" beckons Solness. His somewhat frenzied state of mind, and his concern about himself as the master builder, present, past and future, has gained leverage from Hilda's demand for "castles in the air." This symbolic image,

like the tower Solness climbs, carries the weight of Solness's beliefs and his heedful behavior. Ultimately, the symbols survive and Solness perishes. They illuminate a part of him and eventually inspire him to act. He dies by making an action that represents his selfish attempt at surmounting happiness and ignoring his observations and beliefs about life's capacity to direct him. He has ignored his own beliefs to satisfy arrogance, pride (hubris), and desire. Therefore, the symbolism of the tower and building "castles in the air" is connected to Solness's beliefs.

James Calderwood asked an insightful question that is tied to the symbolism in the play.

How does the play ascend from realistic homes for human beings to romantic castles in the air without causing a total collapse of our most tenuous suspension of disbelief? (1984, 622)

One answer I am addressing is that the line of action throughout the play is based upon Solness's beliefs. Furthermore, the way Solness understands the events in his life is not beyond belief, but rather intricately developed and webbed into the unfolding story line that pushes the action forward. All of us form some belief about the existence or nonexistence of unseen workings in life; the "circumstances" in life, as Solness put it. Such beliefs are subjective, but very real. My use of the term realism will now reflect this aspect of the play: the belief held by Solness concerning how the events in his life have come to materialize. This new definition also reflects the change in Ibsen's subject matter in his late plays, away from social realism, toward the individual and modernity.

The action of the play and the symphony are essentially driven by the development of one aspect of each, the first theme of the music and the personal credo of Solness. Ibsen gives the viewer a hint about Solness's credo when he has the character say: "I cannot help it! I am what I am, and I cannot change my nature!" This perspective is first alluded to as a sign of insanity by Mrs. Solness, the Doctor, and by Solness himself. The insinuation of madness generally assists in making acceptable the more unbelievable character Hilda and her demands. But Solness questions his own sanity

because he is torn by his belief in how his place in the world has been formed. His confession early in the play that "circumstances favored me" is a reference to many earlier experiences. But these have yet to be revealed to the audience: the fire, his desire, his scheming to become successful, his conviction that Kaia and Hilda have responded to thoughts he has left unspoken, the "trolls" in oneself. When these things are revealed they assist in making known Solness's belief about the events and "circumstances" in his life. They serve to substantiate his certainty that the circumstances in his life are out of his control. They unveil his teleological view that some higher part of the universe is in operation and has had a role in defining his position. He schemes in accordance to this belief. Such a belief is in alignment with what William James defined as "over-beliefs."

For James, over-beliefs are those beliefs people hold that are beyond scientific proof, but are often the most interesting thing about a person. Researching religious beliefs and conversion as ways people have accounted for their circumstances in life, James finds that an over-belief is typically arrived at in response to an "uneasiness," when the individual is at a "stage of solution or salvation."

The person identifies with a "higher part" of the self.

[one] becomes conscious that this higher part is conter-minous and continuous with a MORE of the same quality, which is operative in the universe outside of him, and which he can keep in working touch with, and in a fashion get on board of and save himself when all his lower being has gone to pieces in the wreck (1958, 384).

James wrote about over-beliefs in reference to the multifarious experiences in life that people attribute to God or understand as a religious experience, in the seminal 1902 lectures that comprise

his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience. James himself pragmatically concedes and calls the "higher part of the universe" God, since "God is the natural appellation" Christians have always given it. Although he makes part of his own over-belief clear, that the "subconscious . . . further limits of our being plunge" into this "higher part" (388­89).

Like Solness, we all, whether a believer, atheist, or mystic, understand the workings of the "higher part" in some way, for example, as coincidence, destiny, fate, God's plan, "eternal return" (Nietzsche), "synchronicity" (Jung), or "circumstances." The distinguishing factor resides in the explanation one gives, the belief one holds about what causes our "circumstances" and sets them in operation. Solness believes that God is responsible for the circumstances in his life.

One figurative meaning of Solness's church-building endeavors is blatant, his becoming God-like. In the drama his desire to build churches is connected to his ("over") belief that his "circumstances" are the work of God. The action during the third act revolves around the symbolic act of climbing a tower. The symbolism functions to substantiate points related to his belief. Because now his climb is part of his determination to step outside of his "circumstances," to begin a new life. The action is broadened in scope through symbolism that substantiates Solness's subjective view. It is based in his "realism" (as newly defined above). Furthermore, Solness gives a calm and collected confession in the dialogue that directly precedes his final climb. Hilda asks Solness if he is afraid of climbing the tower of the new home and possibly falling to his death. Solness replies, "No . . . . I am afraid of retribution." The fact that Solness has a religious "over-belief" is essential to recall.

Solness. I came as a boy from a pious home in the country; and so it seemed to me that this church-building was the noblest task I could set myself . . . . I built those poor little churches with such honest and warm and heartfelt devotion that-that-

Hilda. That? Well?

Solness. Well, that I think that he ought to have been pleased with me.

Hilda. He? What he?

Solness. He who was to have the churches, of course! He to whose honor and glory they were dedicated.

As for the understanding Solness has of his own judgment: "He pleased with me! . . . Oh no, he made me feel clearly enough that he was not pleased with me." As the dialogue continues, Ibsen reveals the ultimate reasoning behind Solness's belief in the "circumstances" that favored him. Throughout the play Solness speaks in a lower, "mysterious" tone when he makes references to his belief that God wanted him to become an "accomplished master in my own sphereso that I might build all the more glorious churches for him." Ibsen thereby makes known that part of Solness's "over-belief" is that the circumstances occurred as a result of God's plan. When Solness finally does fall, the effect is climactic because his personal credo has not forbidden its occurrence.³

Thematically, Ibsen has developed Solness's beliefs and teleological credo to function as a continuous thread around which the action spins.

Likewise, Sibelius works from essentially one theme stated in the first movement of his Symphony No. 4. The theme recurs in the following movements as well. The similarity between Ibsen and Sibelius is one of procedure and style. All artists develop their themes. But the concise and focused approach that develops a theme or two into a whole work belongs to Ibsen and Sibelius. The result bears an austerity that assists in defining action. The nature of the similarity between Sibelius and Ibsen can be witnessed in the following comment made by Sibelius when in conversation with Mahler. Discussing the symphony as a form, Sibelius responded that its essential nature resides in "the severity of style and the profound logic that create[s] an inner connection between all the motifs" (Abraham, 1947, 154). No description can come closer to what is evident in his Symphony No. 4, and to a lesser extent in other works, such as the first movement of Symphony No. 1. Burnett James wrote of Sibelius's music that "the intellectual and aural satisfaction received from a Sibelius symphony, beginning to end, is the result, to a large extent, of the inner logic and unity of his technique" (1983, 54).

"Inner logic and unity of . . . technique" describes Ibsen as well, especially during the period of The Master Builder. But even in his earlier period, Ibsen acknowledged the importance of a highly unified work and discussed how to achieve unification. He worked on Pillars of Society (1877) for seven years. During that time he wrote:

I have yet to solve the problem of retaining some sort of poetry and grandeur in my dramatic portrayal of modern life not the poetry of words but of feeling and situation. But I have found out something that may help . . . manipulating the prosaic details of my plays so that they become theatrical metaphors . . . I have used costume in this way, lighting, scenery, landscape, and weather . . . I have used living figures as symbols of spiritual forces that act upon the hero. Perhaps these things could be brought into the context of a modern realistic play to help me to portray the modern hero and the tragic conflict which I now understand so well. (Fjelde, 99)

What the quote reveals is that symbols are subservient to realistic attributes. Ibsen now employs "prosaic details" as "theatrical metaphors," as a way of substantiating his unity of action,⁴ to develop a "modern realistic play" that portrays the "modern hero and the tragic conflict."

Since both of these artists began their careers in the nineteenth century and ended as unique stylists, it may be worth investigating if either of these works maintains any characteristics of Romanticism that would assist in defining the action as upholding Romantic ideals, or bring illumination to their qualities. The prevailing answer is that the given context is Romantic, and the action as a nascent idea evolves from this. As described above, the action in The Master Builder can be understood solely in relationship to Solness.⁵ The defining feature from which the action stems is Romantic: the hero with ideals to be achieved at any cost, suffering from experiencing subjective truth. Once these are put into the context of a conditionan individual's beliefs as vividly exposed through one's character and occupation in lifethe boundary into "realism" has

been crossed. Symbolism was assigned to serve its end.

A similar statement can be made about the Symphony No. 4. The correlative procedure in the Symphony includes the notion that music evolves from itself. Referring to music, however, one must be careful to distinguish between action and motion. The time arts especially are always in motion, if we accept their contextualization of time as objectifying motion. The concern here is with how movement, whether thematic development of a plot or of a musical idea, is transformed and evolves to create meaningful action. If developed material has its source in what has been more modestly stated, then some action has evolved. The action is particularly "organic" when continuity results from internal relationships between one theme and the next. From a perspective that derives its understanding from technical analysis only, the means of thematic development provides the reason for the paradoxical statement made above, "music evolves from itself." In this case a nuclear theme becomes a source for generating new, but related material. Obviously, material that is completely new may be introduced at any point, and therefore may be all the more poignant. So the context from which action evolves is essential.

As stylistic characteristics, action and context point to the tumescent, exploitative aspect of Romanticism: in music, expanded forms, extended virtuosic passages, the grand ending that resists ending, the impassioned fervor, or as Mahler said in reply to Sibelius, "No, the symphony must be like the whole world. It must embrace everything" (Johnson, 1959, 130).

Sibelius's music certainly does not "embrace everything," but its lengthy phrases, subjective feelings of expression and extended harmonies show its roots in Romanticism. Rather than being "like the whole world," the music is specific in character, its action humble and true to itself. Its evocative power comes from its focus. This specificity does not negate its qualification as Romantic music, but rather supports it. When discussing the motivic development of Sibelius's first symphony, Burnett James notes.

Even at this early stage Sibelius's method has nothing in common with an idée fixe or with the 'cyclic form' used by

Elgar after Cesar Franck. It is the beginnings of a genuinely organic way of thinking and composing, the linking and interlocking of motifs nearer to the cellular evolution of living organisms (1983, 53n).

It required the historical progression of form itself as seen from the Baroque through Neoclassicism and into Romanticism for such a conception to have its venue. In Romanticism, artistic vision governed form which was loosened enough so that one's style was relatively freed from convention. Finally, we have seen how stylistic traits of Ibsen and Sibelius are similar. Although symbolism (Ibsen), modern, and romantic elements are evident, each artist focuses upon a limited number of ideas which are developed to create action. In each work, the action is defined through its inherent relationship with centralized themes and always remains close to them.      ||

Works Cited

Abraham, Gerald. ed. The Music of Sibelius. New York: Norton and Co., 1947.

Calderwood, James. "The Master Builder and the Failure of Sym- bolic Success", Modern Drama, 27 Dec. (1984).

Fjelde, Rolf. Ibsen: A Collection of Critical Essays. New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc. 1965.

Ibsen, Henrik. The Master Builder. Trans. Eva Le Gallienne, New York University Press, 1955.

James, Burnett. The Music of Jean Sibelius. Associated University Presses, Inc., 1983.

James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience. Penguin, Inc. 1958.

Johnson, Harold. Jean Sibelius. New York: Knopf, 1959.

Notes

¹Certainly there are other playwrights and composers who are frugal in their approach to unifying a work by focusing solely upon one or two ideas and manipulating them to generate seemingly new material. Johannes Brahms immediately comes to mind in this regard.

²In 1962, Richard Schechner published "The Unexpected Visitor in Ibsen's Late Plays," a Jungian reading that understands Hilda and the other visitors in Ibsen's plays as "sector[s] of the hero's mind which cannot be faced directly" (159). The article is reproduced in Ibsen, ed. Rolf Fjelde, 1965.

³Solness has succeeded in living with the "circumstances" established by God. However, in the third act he reveals a pessimistic belief: "Men have no use for these homes of theirsto be happy in. And I should not have had any use for such a home, if I had one. See, that is the upshot of the whole affair, however far back I look. Nothing really built; nor anything sacrificed for the chance of building. Nothing, nothing! the whole is nothing." This exclamation serves to signify a crisis of faith. Now Solness is free to act according to his own dictates and to be his own God. Remaining with William James as a reference, he comes to the conclusion that one does not serve one's faith if there is not a change in one's behavior. Solness's belief in himself does change his behavior. He decides to climb the tower in the final act. Solness and Hilda proclaim their love for one another and will attempt to build castles in the air "on a firm foundation."

But does Solness really believe that this is possible? Even as a tragic hero, throughout the play he has exhibited an understanding of the "circumstances" and used them to succeed. Castles in the air on a firm foundationis less a metaphor than a paradox. Is Solness that swayed by Hilda or is there something else he is not revealing? Perhaps his fall was not that at all, but a suicide. His statement that "the whole is nothing" signifies the rupture with his religious belief; he is now left in a meaningless life. He says to Hilda that he will build castles in the air. But upon climbing the tower he says, "Hear me Mighty Lordthou may'st judge me as seems best to thee. But hereafter I will build nothing but the loveliest thing in the world." Presumably this "thing" is his love and life with Hilda. Equally, if Solness did jump, then this "thing" becomes a life united with God. Ibsen never says with certainty. What he does have Solness say is that, "Now I shall go down and throw my arms around her and kiss

her," something that never really happened when referred to in the first act, or at best it was left ambiguous. Will the dream come true? Or does Solness realize its impossibility that the "whole is nothing"and jumps?

⁴The use of the Aristotelian phrase unity of action is employed cautiously. It would be interesting to examine the Aristotelian unity of action in relationship to both these artists, but here time did not permit it.

⁵The inspiration that helped design Solness as a character came from experiences in Ibsen's life. At the age of 61 Ibsen met his own "Hilda," an Austrian girl much younger than the playwright. He managed to suppress the enticement which came from knowing her. The autobiographical details of the play have been well documented. For a terse reference, see Reflections: Essays on Modern Theatre, Martin Esslin, Doubleday, 1969, 44.

Brian Fitzpatrick teaches music in the Fine and Performing Arts department at Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. His research is concerned with stylistic and expressive qualities of music, painting, theatre, and film. Professor Fitzpatrick seeks to elucidate artistic styles and their cultural frames while addressing topics such as the self-consciousness of modernity, disjunct narrative, time, and transcendence. Active as a composer, he has written music performed in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Massachusetts.